Emily Young
After a great deal of reading and research, Michigan State University Doctoral student, Jacob Mathiason, has submitted some helpful information regarding college students and ADHD. The following manuscript helps provide readers with the primary and secondary features of ADHD, potential problem areas, as well as indicators of success. Along with the research information there are also a number of other useful websites and resources for learning more about the problem.
For more information regarding ADHD or the following manuscript, contact:
Jacob B. Mathiason
Doctoral Student in School Psychology
Michigan State University
101a Erickson Hall
mathias6@msu.edu
517-648-418
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and College Students
It has been reported that the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adulthood ranges from 2%-7% with 4% being the generally accepted rate (Wender, 2000). ADHD in college students, largely estimated based on self-report, suggests that the prevalence ranges from 4% to 11% depending on the measures and threshold cutoffs used (Dupaul et al., 2001). Considering that the prevalence of ADHD within the general population for children is estimated to be between 3% and 7% (American Psychiatric Association 2000), it appears that ADHD is carried into adulthood and equally represented on college campuses. Of concern then is how ADHD symptoms impact the academic and social success of young adults with the disorder.
The primary, or core, symptoms of ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The secondary, or peripheral, symptoms of ADHD may consist of academic struggles, problems with self-esteem, poor social skills, or difficulties with organization. The symptoms that are experienced vary from individual to individual. One model of ADHD suggests that the peripheral symptoms of ADHD can be conceptualized as byproducts of the core features (Rapport, Kyong-Mee, Shore, & Isaacs, 2001). The model explains that the neurobiological substrate of ADHD is affected by both biological influences and environmental demands. The core features are a direct result of the substrate and are most often treated pharmacologically (e.g. Ritalin, Adderall, Straterra) or with behavioral interventions. The peripheral features manifest as a result of one or more of the core features and can be further treated through skills training using a multimodal approach. The implications of the Rapport et al. model suggest that treatments aimed at the core features of the disorder would prove to be more broadly effective than those aimed at peripheral features (Rapport et al., 2001).
A few peripheral symptoms specific to college students with ADHD symptoms include difficulties with college adjustment, social skills, and self-esteem (Shaw-Zirt, Popali-Lehane, Chaplin, & Bergman, 2005). One study found that college students with ADHD were more likely to be on academic probation, have a lower grade point average, and report more academic problems than students without ADHD (Heiligenstein, Guenther, Levy, Savino, & Fulwiler, 1999). Also, students with ADHD are at risk for repeated exposure to failure, which can lead to feelings of helplessness depending on a student's attribution style (Tominey, 1997). If attributions are negative, attributional retraining techniques can be used to create a more positive mind set.
To identify factors associated with success, researchers surveyed 18 male and 25 female college students with ADHD (Wallace, Winsler, & NeSmith, 1999). The issues specifically targeted in the survey included: planning and scheduling activities, study habits, focus of attention, the presence of additional learning difficulties, social relationships, help-seeking, and self-efficacy. The strongest indicators of success were: age (older students), higher feelings of self-confidence, acting responsibly (e.g. taking notes in class), and the ability of the student to plan and effectively follow through with a structured schedule. A high self-esteem and the ability to implement structure appear to be common themes in achieving success at the post-secondary level.
Turk and Campbell (Turk & Campbell, 2003) provide an in-depth, narrative example of the struggles that one college student with ADHD faced, and the practices that were implemented to target specific problems. The various strategies and treatments that were used to achieve success for this student consisted of a combination of stimulant medication, regular exercise, enrolling in courses that were of interest, and using an organizational tool (i.e. palm pilot). This example exemplifies the importance of implementing a multimodal treatment to ensure that the specific needs of a student are being met.
The increase in eligibility for services of students with ADHD at the post-secondary level (Latham, 1995) requires a current examination of appropriate services and treatments that are available to college students. For more information on ADHD and to find resources that are currently available, visit the Children and Adults with ADD website at www.CHADD.org , or the ADD Resources website at www.addresources.org .
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth ed.-Text Revision). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
Dupaul, G. J., Schaughency, E. A., Weyandt, L. L., Tripp, G., Kiesner, J., Ota, K., et al. (2001). Self-report of ADHD symptoms in university students: Cross-gender and cross-national prevalence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 370-379.
Heiligenstein, E., Guenther, G., Levy, A., Savino, F., & Fulwiler, J. (1999). Psychological and academic functioning in college students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of American College Health, 47, 181-185.
Latham, P. H. (1995). Legal issues pertaining to the postsecondary student with ADD. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 11, 53-61.
Rapport, M. D., Kyong-Mee, C., Shore, G., & Isaacs, P. (2001). A conceptual model of child psychopathology: Implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 48-58.
Shaw-Zirt, B., Popali-Lehane, L., Chaplin, W., & Bergman, A. (2005). Adjustment, social skills, and self-esteem in college students with symptoms of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 8, 109-120.
Tominey, M. F. (1997). Attributional style as a predictor of academic success for students with learning disabilities and/or attention deficiti disorder in postsecondary education. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Disabilities Association, Chicago.
Turk, T. N., & Campbell, D. A. (2003). What's right with Doug: The academic triumph of a gifted student with ADHD. Gifted Child Today, 26, 40-45.
Wallace, B. A., Winsler, A., & NeSmith, P. (1999). Factors associated with success for college students with ADHD: Are standard accomodations helping? Paper presented at the American Education Research Association Annual Conference, Montreal, Canada.
Wender, P. H. (2000). ADHD: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adults. New York: Oxford University Press.